Vol. 6 No. 1 (2027): January 2027

Set theory plays a crucial role as the fundamental basis of mathematics, which is essential for understanding more complex concepts such as relations, functions, algebra, and statistics. However, in practice, the reality is that students’ conceptual understanding remains inadequate, as evidenced by a very high prevalence of misconceptions as high as 78%. The main problem students face lies in mathematical representation, particularly difficulties in presenting problems as Venn diagrams and serious errors in the use of the intersection (∩) and union (∪) symbols. In addition, students often struggle to transform the story in a problem into an appropriate mathematical model due to a lack of attention to detail and insufficient logical thinking skills. This study aims to analyze how effective the Project-Based Learning (PjBL) approach is as a teaching method that can help students better understand these concepts. By analyzing 19 scientific journals using a descriptive qualitative literature review method, it was found that PjBL successfully transformed a rote-learning approach into a learning approach that actively seeks and constructs knowledge through systematically organized learning stages. This process consists of four modeling stages: situational (real-world context), referential (emergence of consensus within the group), generalization (general notation), and formal (standard symbols). The results of the data analysis show that the integration of Project-Based Learning (PjBL) with Problem-Based Learning (PBL) as a starting point significantly improved learning outcomes, even reaching 100% in some cycles. In addition to fostering cognitive development, the implementation of real-world projects also successfully increased students’ creativity by up to 88% and fostered independence and a sense of responsibility in learning. This study demonstrates that Project-Based Learning (PjBL) is an effective method for addressing students’ difficulties in learning set theory, as it creates a more active, meaningful, and student-centered learning environment.